Invasive species and indigenous activism in Chile

Background
Concepción, a city in the south of Chile, is covered in Pine trees. These trees are not native to Chile and their presence in the country has been harmful on many levels. The story starts in the 1930s when chileans, seeking new exports and hoping to control   erosion, begin cultivating a species of North American pine tree. These early plots were similar in structure to the “haciendas” or plantation style estates that covered much of the country, and were equally damaging to rural populations.

Pine Trees lining the highway outside of Concepción in Southern Chile. (1)
Haciendas were instituted in central Chile in the 1870s and moved into southern Chile in the decades that followed. These estates allowed rich foreign investors to purchase large swaths or chilean land and convert indigenous and creole people already living on the land into tenant laborers. This created a oppressive system where “hacienda workers were not capable of breaking through paternalistic domination to organise themselves and challenge landowners,” (2). In the early years of colonization, the hacienda system grew unchecked in Chile, because land was abundant and “unclaimed.” In this way, large amounts of chilean land was put into production for the export economy, though very little of this land was modernized in any significant way. This pattern is in keeping with the idea of “extractive colonialism,” wherein the goal of colonialism is not to develop a new world, but to support the wealth of the old world. Colonialism of this type generally goes hand in hand with settler colonialism (the formation of a new state in the settled lands), as can be seen in the hacienda system.
Political Unrest
The hacienda system continued into the mid 1900s, though as the country modernized, so too did the haciendas. Tenet laborers (often called campesinos) began to take notice of the unjust system in place. The stirrings of revolution began in the countryside in the 60s and 70s, culminating in the election of Salvador Allende in 1970. His socialist government attempted to fix the situation in a way that would benefit tenet laborers (often termed campesinos), and the growing forestry industry. Campesinos were largely opposed to these changes, as they rightly predicted that pine plantations would come with steep ecological costs and make subsistence agriculture more difficult. However, Allende’s government was on the verge of reaching an accord when it was toppled in 1973.
Pinochet took power by force in 1973, and immediately began instituting neoliberal reforms to capitalize off of the forests planted by Allende and predecessors. Pinochet, however, was less empathetic to the plight of the rural campesinos than Allende had been, and began doubling down on forestry. Pinochet’s government seized potentially forestable lands, expelled campesinos, and auctioned the land off to corporations. This created a cheap labor force of ex-campesinos who no longer had access to land (for subsistence agriculture) or a steady income. At the same time, Pinochet began criminalizing all types of political organizing. During his regime, union leaders were detained, tortured, and often killed.

A view of Magdalena Island, where detainees were housed and tortured under Pinochet’s regime. Native Kaweskar people were also housed on this island during an era of forced assimilation.
Pinochet also instituted “counter terrorism” laws which persist in the country to this day and have had lasting effects on political movements. Meanwhile, forestry zones quickly became the poorest areas in the country, while the industry made Chile’s wealthy elite more and more money. The land and its people were being outrageously mistreated. The introduction of pine as a monoculture forced native fauna to flee, leaving rural people without a major food source. Pine needles dropping onto forest floors have acidified the soils. Plantations were also fenced off, so that people could not harvest firewood. This disconnection to the land was especially troubling for Mapuche people, who are native to the central region of Chile.
During the growth of the forestry industry, native forests of Pehuen trees (also known as Monkey Puzzle trees or Araucaria araucana) were replaced with invasive pine trees.

The strange and beautiful Pehuen Tree, native to central and southern Chile (3).
Because of their hardiness, Pehuen trees are considered sacred by Mapuche peoples and the destruction of Pehuen forests, along with seizure of native lands and consistent human rights abuses, have driven Mapuche people into action. In the 80s, in the midst of Pinochet’s violent regime, Mapuche organizers united with the catholic church, allowing a resurgence of the labor movement. Progress was made throughout the 80s and 90s, despite the dictatorship, and some land has been returned to Mapuche peoples.
 
Activism in the wake of dictatorship
The dictatorship has left lasting effects on the community and its ability to organize. As previously mentioned, pine acidifies soil, meaning that native forests cannot regain a foothold. For this reason, land returned to Mapuche peoples requires constant maintenance and ecological restoration.
Meanwhile, Mapuche activists are still attempting to reclaim land and remove pine plantations. Protesters have blockaded roads and purportedly set fire to plantations to halt production. However, the vestiges of dictatorial government still haunt the justice system in Chile. The counter terrorism laws, passed during the Pinochet, are still on the books. Many protesters, especially those of Mapuche origin, have been prosecuted under these laws. Extrajudicial killings have also been reported throughout the country side, sparking further protests.

Questions to consider from this case study:
How can cultural contexts inform activism?